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Validators may be selected each slot (12s) to propose blocks and must attest to others' blocks. Correct participation earns rewards; faults or attacks are penalized.

Slashing triggers include double-signing and surround voting. Penalties can burn staked ETH and force exit in severe cases.

Solo validators need highly available servers, backup nodes, monitoring, and secure signing keys. Client bugs or misconfigurations cause downtime penalties.

Staking providers (Lido, Coinbase, etc.) lower barriers but add operational and centralization risk—high operator share can hurt censorship resistance.

Pectra raises max effective balance (up to 2048 ETH) and enables execution-layer triggered exits, improving efficiency for large stakers and pooled participants.